Making Sense Of Functional Grammar: Exploring the Relationship between Meaning and Structure

2. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited byBerti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca SaktiBEKASI Page 2 GRAMMAR What do you think when you hear the wordgrammar? As a student in school you may have thought of it as a setof exercises to get right in English class. Now, as a person who isstudying language in some depth, you will find that grammar is muchmore. This section is organised around the questions: What isgrammar? Why do we need to know about grammar? How can wecharacterise or talk about grammar? What is Grammar? Grammar is atheory of language, of how language is put together and how itworks. More particularly, it is the study of wordings. What ismeant by wording? Consider the following for a moment: Times flieslike an arrow. This string of language means something; the meaningis accessible through the wording, that is, the words and theirorders; and the wording in turn, is realised or expressed throughsound or letters. Folk terminology Linguistic terminology meaningsemantics wording lexicogrammar letters/soundsorthography/phonology In some theories of grammar, lexicogrammar iscalled syntax, which is studied independentlyof semantics. In othertheories of grammar, wordings are characterised such that they areable to explain meaning. More on this in a moment. 3. MAKING SENSEOF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti NurulKhajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page3 Why Grammar? Why do we need to know about grammar? We need atheory of grammar or language which helps us understand how textswork. As teachers we need to knowhow texts work so we canexplicitly help learners learn how to understand and produce textsspoken and written in various contexts for various purposes.Several years ago one of us overhead a conversation between a Year9 student and his geography teacher. The student was asking theteacher why he had received a low mark for his project. The teacherresponded that the work just didnt hang together. The boy asked,But how do I make it hang together? The teacher responded bysuggesting that the student make the work cohere. This example isnot to criticise students or teachers. The student would have madethe text hang together in the first place had he known how. And theteacher would have explained in good faith had he known explicitlyhow texts, especially geography texts, worked. Systemic-functionalgrammar, presented in this book, perhaps more than any other theoryof language, explains how texts, inluding texts read and written inschools, work. Characterising Language This is where viewpointsbegin to diverge. Notice that weve not used the term the grammar ofEnglish. Instead, there are a number of grammars which differ inhow they characterise language, depending on the purposes of theuser. How people have characterised wordings, that is, devisedtheories of grammar, depends on the kinds of questions they haveasked about language, on what they want to find out about it.Consider for a moment the experience of six blind men meeting anelephant for the first time. One blind man felt the tail anddeclared that an elephant was like a rope; another felt the trunkand decided that an elephant was like a hose. Another, feeling theear, felt an elephant was like an umbrella. Each blind mandeveloped a theory what elephants are like. 4. MAKING SENSE OFFUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati,for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 4Theories of language (grammars) are a bit like the blind mensexperience of the elephant. Each ended up with somewhat differentperspective. And like the blind mens experience, theories oflanguage or grammar are not inherently good or bad, right or wrong,true or false. Rather, grammars are validated by their usefulnessin describing and explaining the phenomenon called language. Asteachers, wecan further ask whether the grammar helps learners andtheir teachers to understand and produce texts. As discourseanalysts, we can ask how the grammar sheds light on how texts makemeaning. To the extent that grammar can help with these questions,it is more useful than another grammar. There are three grammarswhich have had a major influence on schools in the western world inthis century. These are as follows. Traditional Grammar Traditionalgrammar aims to describe the grammar of standard English bycomparing with Latin. As such, it is prescriptive. Students learnthe names of parts of speech (nouns, verbs, prepositions, adverbs,adjectives), parse textbook sentences and leanr to correctso-called bad grammar. Writers are taught, for example, not tostart sentences with and, to make sure the subject agrees with theverb (time flies not time fly like an arrow), to say I did it andnot I done it. Traditional grammar focuses on rules for productingcorrect sentences. In so doing, it has two main weaknesses.Firstly, the rules it prescribes are based on the language of avery small group of middle-class English speakers. Thus it can beused to discriminate against the language of working class,immigrant and Aboriginal students. (Consider Jeff Fenechs heartfeltI love youse all.) Secondly,the rules deal only with the mostsuperficial aspects of writing. Following the rules in no wayguarantees that written communication will be effective, for therules say nothing about purpose or intended audiences for writing.5. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited byBerti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca SaktiBEKASI Page 5 Formal Grammar Formal grammars are concerned todescribe the structure of individual sentences. Such grammars viewlanguage as a set of rules which allow or disallow certain sentencestructures. Knowledge of these rules is seen as being carriedaround inside the mind. The central question formal grammarsattempt to address is: How is this sentence structured? Meaning istypically shunted off into the too-hard box. Functional GrammarFunctional grammars view language as a resource for making meaning.These grammars attempt to describe language in actual use and sofocus on texts and their contexts. They are concerned not only withthe structures but also with how those structures constructmeaning. Functional grammars start with the question, How are themeanings of this text realise? Traditional and formal grammarswould analyse our earlier clause as follows: Time flies like anarrow. noun verb prepositional phrase Tim told of a tragic case.Systemic-functional grammar, on the other hand, labels elements ofthe clause in terms of the function each is playing in that clauserather than by word class. Time flies like an arrow. Participant:Actor Process: Material Cirumstance: Manner Tim told of a tragiccase. Participant: Sayer Process: Verbal Circumstance: Matter 6.MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by BertiNurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca SaktiBEKASI Page 6 In these last two clauses, the Participant (doer)roles are realised by nouns, the Processes (doing) by verbs and theCircunstance by prepositional phrases. But flying and telling aretwo quite different orders of doing, and in the above clause likean arrow tells how time flies, while of a tragic case tells whatTim was talking about. Word class labels are certainly notuseless,but they will only take you so far. They do not account fordifferences or similarities to any extent. To sum up the maindifferences in perspective among the above three grammars, thefollowing table is presented. Formal (+Traditional) FunctionalPrimary How is (should) this sentence How are the meanings concernbe structured? of this text realised? Unit of analysis sentencewhole texts Language syntax semantics level of concern Language = aset of rules for sentence = a resource for meaning constructionmaking = something we know = something we do 7. MAKING SENSE OFFUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati,for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 7EXERCISE 1. Each of the sentences immediately below consists of twoclauses. Underline each of two clauses in each sentence. Get out ofhere or Ill scream. Mike plays trombone and Pete sax. She getscrabby when her back hurts. The passenger, who was wearing aseatbelt, wasnt hurt. The passenger who was wearing a seatbeltwasnt hurt, but the lady in the back got a nasty bump. 2. Timeflies like an arrow was segmented as follows: Time flies like anarrow How would you segment: Fruit flies like a ripe banana? 3.Identify in your own words what the purpose of each text below is.Circle all the Processes the words which tell you that something isdoing something, or that something is/was. Make a list of the doingwords for each text; likewise list all the being/having words foreach text. How does the choice of Processed used in each textreflect the purpose of the text? Text 1 A man thought he was a dog,so he went to a psychiatrist. After a while the doctor said he wascured. The man met a friend on the street. The friend asked him,How do you feel? Im fine, the man said, Just feel my nose.(Goldsweig, 1970) Text 2 Birds are the only animals with feathers.These structures make up the greater part of the wing surface andalso act as insulation, helping 8. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONALGRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for theLimited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 8 them remainwarm. Birds are the most active of the vertebrate animals and theyconsequently consume large quantities of food. (Source: Year 7Science student) 4. Change the wording of the following to makethem less ambiguous. Caution! This door is alarmed! (K-Mart,Chatswood, New South Wales) Please excuse Lorelle; she has beenunder the doctor with pneumonia. (Note from parent to roll-makingteacher) If fire alarm bell rings, evacuate quickly and quietly.(Official safety notices on back of toilet doors, The University ofSidney) 9. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 9 THE CONTEXT TEXT CONNECTION It wassuggested above that we need a model of language that helps usunderstand how texts work to make meaning; this in turn enables usto facilitate learners interpretation and production of texts.Systemic-funcional grammar can do this. How? Because of the waythis model of language explains the connections between context andtext. Wed like to begin explaining the context text connection witha propotion: All meaning is situated In a context of situation In acontext of culture Take the utterance: Just put it beside thoseother ones. The meaning remains obscure until we know that it wassaid to a removalist who had just lugged in another carton ofhousehold goods during moving one of us to Brisbane. Knowing thecontext of situation makes the utterance intellegible. Note thatthe meaning is also culturally situated. In the Anglo way of doingthings, it is permissible to hire total strangers to pack ourmaterials goods into boxes, haul them halfway across the countryand then for these or other total strangers to tolerate carryingand being told where to put these boxes by women half their size!Removal is a cultural act no less than folk dancing. The utterancejust put it beside the other ones is meaningful within a context ofculture and context of situation. Context of culture determineswhat we can mean through Being who we are Doing what we do Sayingwhat we say This applies to all of us. Suppose, like one of us, yougrew up in mid-western United States the eldest daughter in a largefarming family. Being the eldest daughter in this circumstanceautomatically casts one in the role of mommas little helper. Thatswho you are in the family. This turn largely 10. MAKING SENSE OFFUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati,for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 10determines what you do within the family and what you say.Protesting that you dont want to do the ironing or that the baby isa smelly brat isnt allowed. Context of situation can be specifiedthrough use of the register variables: field, tenor and mode. Fieldrefers to what is going on, including Activity focus (nature ofsocial activity) Object focus (subject matter) So field specifieswhats going on with reference to what. Tenor refers to the socialrelationships between those taking part. These are specifiable interms of Status or power (agent roles, peeror hierarchic relations)Affect (degree of like, dislike or neutrality) Contact (frequency,duration and intimacy of social contact) Think, for example, howyou say good morning to members of your family, shop assistants,work colleagues. This simple actis very much a cultural one andclearly bespeaks social relationships (tenor). Mode refers to howlanguage is being used, wether The channel of communication isspoken or written Language is being used as a mode of action orreflection For example, a mother talking her young child through atoilet-training session is spoken channel, language as action. Dr.Chris Green writing about toilet training in his book ToddlerTaming is written channel, language as reflection. As languagemoves from action to reflection there is a progressive distancingfrom the actual event and the experience becomes increasinglyvicarious. 11. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 11 Understanding Texts Reconstructing theContext When we (over)hear or read a text, we can reconstruct itscontext of situation. For example: ... we supervise the plantingand inspect the harvest. And we buy only the pick of the crop. Ourexperienced buyers look for lack of blemish, minimum number ofeyes, pure white meaty interiors with firm frying consistency. Whatis the topic of the above text? Field Who/what kind of personproduced this text? For whom? Tenor Do you think the original waswritten or spoken? Mode We are able to reconstruct this context ofsituation because there is a systematic relationship betweencontext and text. The wordings of texts simultaneously encode threetypes of meaning: ideational, interpersonal and textual. Ideationalmeanings are meanings about phenomena about things (living andnon-living, abstract and concrete), about goings on (what thethings are or do) and the circumstances surrounding thesehappenings and doings. These meanings are realised in wordingsthrough Participants, Processes and Circumstances. Meanings of thiskind are most centrally influenced by the field of discourse.Field: growing quality potatoes for french fries. We buy only thepick of the crop Participant: Actor Process: Material Participant:Goal Field: polar bears Polar bears are expert hunters Participant:Carrier Process: Attributive Participant: Attribute 12. MAKINGSENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti NurulKhajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page12 Interpersonal meanings are meanings which express a speakersattitudes and judgments. These are meanings for acting upon andwith others. Meanings are realised in wordings through what iscalled mood and modality. Meanings of this kind are most centrallyinfluenced by tenor of discourse. Mood We inspect the growingplants every week. Declarative Brock, get those plants inspectedright now! Imperative Consider which kind of people are allowed toorder others about. Brock, do you really expect me to believe thiscrop? Mr. Brock, I find your position untenable. Consider thedegree of informality or formality. Mr. Brock is fine, upstandingemployee. Brock is lazy, incompetent fool. Consider the attitudinallexis (in italics) which expresses affect, the degree of like ordislike. Modality Fortunately, Brock is an inspector.Unfortunately, Brock is an inspector. Consider the Mood Adjuncts(italicized) which reveal attitude or judgment. The crop might beinspected. The crop should be inspected. The crop must beinspected. Consider the modal operators (italicised) which revealthe speakers certainty. Textual meanings express the relation oflanguage to its environment, including both the verbal environmentwhat has been said or written before (co-text) and the non-verbal,situational environment (context). These 13. MAKING SENSE OFFUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati,for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 13meanings are realised through patterns of the Theme and cohesion.Textual meanings are most centrally influenced by mode ofdiscourse. The linguistic differences between the following spokenand written texts below relate primarily to differences in thematicchoices and patterns of cohesion. Textual meaning, or texture, islike a sweater. Two sweaters might be made using the same pattern,with wool of the same type. But one is knitted using large, loosestitches. This is like spoken language. The other is knittedfinely, with close stitches. This is like written language. Bothgarments are made of the same materials and serve to keep theirowners warm. But the texture of each is different. The relationshipbetween context, meanings and wordings can be summarised as shownon the following: This is yer phone bill and you hafta go to thePost Office to pay it uh, by next Monday thats what this box tellsya or theyll cut yer phone off! All phone bill must be paid by thedate shown or service will be discontinued. Context Text SemanticsLexicogrammar (meaning) (wordings) Field Ideational Transitivity(whats going on) (Processes, Participants, Circumstances) TenorInterpersonal Mood & Modality (social relations) (speech roles,attitudes) Mode Textual Theme, Cohesion (contextual coherence) 14.MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by BertiNurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca SaktiBEKASI Page 14 Because of the bi-directionality between situationand meaning, and meaning and wording, in turn, we can predict fromthe text to context, as youve done above. We can also move fromcontext to text, as we do in writing or speaking. Given thefollowing contextual configuration, we can predict, within reason,how the text might go: Field activity focus = request for repairobject focus = security screen door in rented unit Tenor status =real estate agent and elderly, widowed tenant affect = favourable,agent and deceased husband were long time friends contact =occasional Mode channel = spoken; language as action The ability topredict from context to text is critically important for textproduction (speaking or writing) and the ability to predict fromtext to context is essential for text comprehension (listening orreading). To understand something of the text context relationshipis to understand something of how literacy is possible. 15. MAKINGSENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti NurulKhajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page15 GENRE When you read the incomplete McDonalds text,you were ableto reconstruct the field, tenor and mode of that text. You alsofigured out that it was an advertisement. That is, you understoodthe purpose of that text. Advertisements are a particulartext-type, or genre. A genre can defined as a culturally specifictext-type which results from using language (written or spoken) to(help) accomplish something. Think, for example,of a typicaldoctor-patient consultation. This consultation has a purpose. Ittakes place through a series of stages, and uses language inparticular ways. So there isusually some sortof greeting; aninvitation from the doctor for the patient to describe symptoms; anexamination, during whichthe doctor tells the patient what theproblem is, if known,and how it will be treated. If not known, thedoctor explains that a referral is necessary. The consultationcloses with some kind of leave-taking. This is how it is down in anEnglish-speaking culture. In a community in which healthconsultation depends on reading entrails of chickens, this genrewould be replaced by one rather different in staging and languageused. So genresare culture specific, and have associated with them:Particular purposes Particular stages: distinctive beginnings,middles and ends Particular linguistic features. Most peopleappreciate to the fact that Narratives (stories) and Procedures (aset of instructions for doing something), for example, differ inpurpose and the way they begin, develop and end. It is ourobservation that it is the significance of characteristiclinguistic features that unfortunately seems least understood.Consider, however, what skewing characteristic linguistic featuresdoes to the following text: Men think they are dogs so they go topsychiatrists. After a while the doctors say they are cured. Themen meet friends on the street. The friends ask them, How do youfeel? Fine, the men say. Just feel our noses. 16. MAKING SENSE OFFUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati,for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 16 Theoriginal of this text is a type of Narrative. The purpose of thetexts of this genre is to relate an amusing or unusual experiencein an entertaining way. In Narrative, Participants are usuallyspecific and individual. Processes are usually Material (acting,behaving) with some Verbals (saying) and Mental (feeling, thinking)type Processes as well. The verbs are in past tense. In the aboverendition, the Participants have been made generic, asthoughclasses of things are under disscussion. The Process types have notbeen changed, but all the verbs have been changed to present tense.Use of generic Participants and present tense verbs are typical ofReports, not Narratives. This is because generic Participants anduse of present tense verbs grammatically help Report achieve theirpurpose of describing the way things (natural, social andsynthetic) are, as in the following: By the time you have workedyour way through this book, we hope that you will understand thesignificance of the linguistic features which realise variousgenres. We further hope that you will know enough about the grammarto feel confident to try describing genres not yet documented inpublished materials. We hope that you will understand enough aboutthe genre grammar connection to be able to intervene in a directand constructive way in the writing of students you teach. Aboveall, we hope that you will look back at this chapter and say, Well,thats obvious, becouse inone way or another, we have foregroundedin this chapter everything we want to teach you in the rest of thisbook. All animals cells have a number of parts in common. They allhave a cell membrane. This is a thin sack that controls whichchemicals can enter and leave a cell. The liquid contents aredivided into the nucleus and cytoplasm.... 17. MAKING SENSE OFFUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati,for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 17CHAPTER 2 MOOD 18. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROTWIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Communityof STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 18 THE CLAUSE AS AN EXCHANGE Inthe last chapter, it was stated that clauses simultaneously encodethree strands of meaning: ideational, textual and interpersonal.Ideational meanings, meanings about things and ideas, are realisedin the clause by options from TRANSITIVITY: Processes, Participantsand Circumstances. Textual meanings, those which make languagecontextually and co-textually relevant, are realised inlexicogrammar through Thematic and Information systems as well asthrough cohesion. And thirdly, there are meanings through whichsocial relations are created and maintained. These interpersonalmeanings are realised in the lexicogrammar through selections fromthe system of MOOD. Here we shall begin focusing on the MOODsystem. Thus, we are talking about the clause as an exchange.Making an utterance isan interactive event inherently involving aspeaker or writer and an addressee (listener or reader). A speaker,in uttering, selects a speech role for her or himself, and,simultaneously and thereby, allocates a speech role to theaddressee. If a speaker gives you some information, as were tryingto do now,he or she is inherently inviting you to receive thatinformation. If as speaker he or she offers you some goods (offersyou a chopcolate, for example), or some services (offers you typeup and distribute class lists), the speaker is inherently invitingyou to receive those goods and services. Or if he or she demandsinformation of you, inherently you are invited top give thatinformation. And if he or she demands some goods or services of you(ooh, scratch my back just there, please), you are thereby invitedto render that service or provide the goods. We can diagram theforegoing as follows: 19. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROTWIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Communityof STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 19 give invite to receive roledemand invite to give goods and services objects and actionscommodity information language itself Combinations of options: givegoods and services = offer give information = statement demandgoods and services = command demand information = question Ofcourse, the addressee has some discretion: + _ offer accept rejectstatement acknowledge contradict command undertake refuse questionanswer disclaim These options are available even when the speakeris talking to him or herself, assuming roles of both speaker andaddressee, in an inferion dialogue. Speakers are aware of thedegree of latitude addressees have for responding. To restrict theaddressees discretion a bit, the speaker can add a Mood tag to anutterance. So we have: - Stay for a cup of coffee, wont you? - Wearent out of milk, are we? - You wont touch Mummys scissors, willyou? These Mood tags have the function of explicitly signallingthat a response is required, and what kind of response it isexpected to be. 20. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROTWIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Communityof STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 20 Exercise 2.1 In themother-child chewing gum text below, identify offers (give: goodsand services); commands (demand: goods and services); statements(give: information); questions (demand: information). What do thespeakers roles suggest about the power relations inherent in theinteraction? Mother : Who put chewing gum on the carpet? Child : Ididnt! Mother : Who did? Child : Michael did. Mother : No! Child :Yes. Mother : No. Child : Yes! Father : It wasnt Michael. Mother :It was not Michael. Child : It wasnt me. Mother : Well then whoelse had chewing gum? Child : Nobody! Mother : Thats right, so whowas it? Father : That will never come off there. Mother : Yes, itwill. Daddys got chewing gum on him. Who put it on the floor? Child: I didnt (smaller voice) Mother : Yes you did. (Hasan 1983) 21.MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by BertiNurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca SaktiBEKASI Page 21 THE MOOD ELEMENT In the chewing gum text, the verbalencounter is a kind of to and fro argument centering around who didor did not put chewing gum in the carpet. C : I didnt M: Who did? C: Michael did. The above bits are called the Mood element. theMoodelement consists of two parts: The Subject, whichis realised by anominal group The Finite element, which is part of the verbalgroup. I didnt Who did Michael did The remainder of each clause, ifthere is a remainder, is called the Residue. It wasnt Michael Thatwill never come off there The Finite element is one of the smallnumber of verbal operators expressing tense, modality and polarity.These are listed on the next page. Subject Finite Mood SubjectFinite Mood Residue 22. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROTWIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Communityof STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 22 Finite verbal operatorsTemporal: past present future did, was does, is will,shall had,used to has would, should Modal: low median high can, may will,would must, ought to could, might is to, was to need, (dare) hasto, had to (Halliday 1994:76) These Finite verbal operators alsohave negative counterparts, e.g. didnt, wont, cant, wouldnt,mustnt. Sometimes the Finite element and the lexical verb arefused. This happens when the verbs is in: Simple past or simplepresent: ate = did eat; eats = does eat Active voice: they eatpizza = they do eat pizza vs pizza is eaten Passive polarity: theyeat = they do eat vs they dont eat Neutral contrast: go away = dogo away. This fusion of the Finite element and lexical verbsbecomes apparent in the Mood tag: A panda eats bamboo, doesnt it?The orchestra played well, didnt it? Pandas have big feet, dontthey? In Declarative clauses, the Subject is that element which ispicked up by the pronounce in the Mood tag. Subject it = panda it =orchestra they = pandas 23. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR(GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the LimitedCommunity of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 23 Exercise 2.2 In theclauses below, identify the Subject and the Finite elements.Remember the easiest way this is to convert the clause intoDeclarating mood (a statement) if it isnt already Declarative, thenadd the Mood tag. 1. Panda bears eat bamboo, (dont they?) Subject =panda bears Finite = do 2. Bamboo shoots are eaten by pandas. 3.The panda cup is really cute. 4. What pandas eat is bamboo shoots.5. There are two pandas in Taronga Park Zoo. 6. It is cold wherepandas live. 7. To be eaten by a bear would be awful. 8. Eating abear would be just awful! 9. It is bamboo shoots that pandas eat.10.It ist wise to annoy a bear. 11.It is tragic that bamboo forestsare being destroyed. We have said that the Mood element consists ofSubject and Finite. What is the function of eachthese elements? TheFinite element has the function of anchoring or locating anexchange with reference to the speaker and making a propositionsomething that can be argued argued about. It does this in threeways: through primary tense, modality and polarity. Primary tensemeans past, present or future at the moment of speaking. Now is thereference point. That special order came yesterday. The coming wasbefore the time of speaking. That special order will come tomorrow.The coming is after the time of speaking. 24. MAKING SENSE OFFUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati,for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 24Through primary tense, we can argue over when an eventdid/will/should occur: That special order came yesterday. Has itarrived already? Or We needed it last Friday. Modality indicatesthe speakers judgment of the probabilities or the obligationsinvolved in what he or she saying: The special order may cometomorrow. It had better! Or But we placed the order only three daysago. Polarity, positive or negative: Theres a unicorn in thegarden! No, there isnt. Theres no life in Mars. There might be.Finiteness combines the specification of polarity with thespecification of either temporal or modal reference to the speechevent: You shouldnt be there = negative polarity, median modality.He wasnt well = negative polarity, past tense. The Subject is thatupon which the speaker rests his case in exchanges of information,and the one responsible for insuring that the prescribed action isor is not carried out in exchanges of goods and services. Pandaseat bamboo (dont they) Ill make some toast (shall I) Turn thatradio down (will you) 25. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROTWIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Communityof STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 25 Pandas, I and youare the oneson which the validity of the information is made to rest in eachclause in turn. Please note that validity doesnt equal truth value;in Turkeys eat bamboo turkeys is Subject, even though the statementis untrue. The Mood element the Subject + Finite thus the burden ofthe clause as an interactive event. It remains constant, as the nubor the exchange,unless some positive step is made to change it. So,for example, in the chewing gum text above there is a shift inSubject in Turn 4 from who/I to Michael. And there is a shift inthe Finite between It wasnt me and Well, then, who else had chewinggum? 26. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Editedby Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP PancaSakti BEKASI Page 26 Exercise 2.3 The following clauses wereselected from a text about Henry Ford. Locate the Subject andFinite elements in the five clauses following the sample clause.Henry Ford built his first car in his backyard 1. as the workproceeded 2. a kindly neighbour moved his coal supply out of hiscar 3. It could not reverse 4. the driver must have been veryuncomfortable 5. then men like Ford started to use the productionline Subject Finite (past) Predicator Complement Adjunct MoodResidue Pred. Mood Residue Pred. Complement Adjunct Mood ResiduePred. Mood Residue Pred. Complement Mood Residue PredicatorComplement Mood Residue 27. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR(GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the LimitedCommunity of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 27 RESIDUE In talkingabout clauses as exchange,so far weve talked only about the Moodelement, consisting of Subject and Finite. We shall continue ourdisscussion of MOOD by turning now to the notion Residue. Let usbegin with the first clause about Henry Ford: Henry Ford built hisfirst car in his backyard. This clause displays a typical patternof elements in the Residue, namely: Predicator, Complement(s),Adjunct(s). Well look at these elements in turn. Predicator ThePredicator is the verb part of the clause, the bit which tellswhats doing, happening or being. Thus, the Predicators in the abovefive clauses are: build, proceed, move, reverse, have been, startto use. There are also non-finite (to + verb and verb + ing)clauses containing a Predicator butno Finite element, for example:so as to give Henry more room giving Henry more room SubjectFinite(past) Predicator Complement Adjunct Mood Residue PredicatorComplement Complement Residue Predicator Complement ComplementResidue 28. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 28 Complement The Complement answers thequestion is/had what, to whom, did to what. Thus, in the examplesprovided above, the following items are Complements: this have thepotential to be Subject. Henry Ford built his first car in hisbackyard. his first car answers the question: did to (built) what?a kindly neighbour moved his coal supply out of his half. his coalsupply answers the question: is (have been) what? Then men likeFord started to use the production line. the production lineanswers the question: did to (started to use) what? so as to giveHenry more room. Henry answers the question: to whom? more roomanswers the question: did (to give) what? The car had four bicyclewheels. four bicycle wheels answer the question: had what? It was aslow process. a slow process answers the question: is what? In theclause: His first car Henry Ford built in his backyard His firstcar is still Complement, despite the different word order in theclause, because it answers the question: did to what? His first carHenry Ford built in his backyard. Complement Subject Fin. Pred.Adjunct Mood Residue 29. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROTWIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Communityof STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 29 Adjuncts CircumtstantialAdjuncts answer the question how, when, where, by whom. Henry Fordbuilt his first car in the backyard of his home A kindly neighbourmoved his coal supply out of his half in the backyard of his homeand out of his half are Adjuncts, answering the question where. In:The symphony was played badly by an amateur orchestra during aconcert Saturday night at the Performing Arts Centre badly is anAdjunct, answering the question how by an amateur orchestra is anAdjunct, answering the question by whom during a concert andSaturday night are Adjuncts, answering the question when at thePerforming Arts Centre is an Adjunct, answering the question where.These are called Circumstantial Adjuncts. There are several othertypes of Adjuncts. One of these is centrally relevant to theanalysis of MOOD. The two which fall outside of Mood structure areConjunctive Adjuncts and Comment Adjuncts. Conjunctive Adjunctsinclude items such as for instance, anyway, moreover, meanwhile,therefore, nevertheless. Those Conjunctive Adjuncts have a textualfunction and so fall outside of analysis of MOOD. Thats why as, soas, and then in as the work proceeded so as to give Henry more roomthen men like Ford started to use the production line are leftunanalysed. Subject Fin. Pred. Pred. Comp. Comp. Subject Fin. Pred.Complement 30. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 30 Comment Adjuncts express the speakerscomment on what he or she is saying. Comment Adjuncts include suchitems as frankly, apparently, hopefully, broadly speaking,understandably, to my surprise. They express interpersonal ratherthan textual meanings but fall outside of Mood-Residue structure.Hence, unfortunately in the clause below is shown as a CommentAdjunct (and however as a Conjunctive Adjunct) but neither fallwithin the Mood-Residue structure. Unfortunately however they weretoo late Mood Adjuncts, on the other hand, both expressinterpersonal meanings and do fall within MOOD structure, moreparticularly within the Mood elements. Mood Adjuncts relatespecifically to the meaning of the finite verbal operators,expressing probability, usuality, obligation, inclination or time.The principal items funcioning as Mood Adjuncts include thefollowing: Adjuncts of polarity and modality: (a) Polarity: not,yes, no, so (b) Probability: probably, possibly, certainly,perhaps, maybe (c) Usuality: usually, sometimes, always, never,ever, seldom, rarely (d) Readiness: willingly, readily, gladly,certainly, easily (e) Obligation: definitely, absolutely, possibly,at all cost, by all means Adjuncts of temporality: (f) Time: yet,still, already, once, soon, just (g) Typically: occasionally,generally, regularly, mainly Adjuncts of mood: (h) Obviousness: ofcourse, surely, obviously, clearly (i) Intensity: just, simple,merely, only, even, actually, really (j) Degree: quite, almost,nearly, scarcely, hardly, absolutely, totally, utterly, entirely,completely Comment Adjunct Conjunctive Adjunct Subj. Fin Comp. MoodResidue 31. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 31 Thus, in the following, surely, ofcourse, and already are analysed as Mood Adjuncts and are includedin the Mood element: Surely he wasnt being serious Of course shehad already met him She had already met him of course Be aware thatthe same word can function differently in different structuralconfigurations: She cant hear clearly on the phone where clearly isa Circumstantial Adjunct, telling how. Clearly the man was innocentHere clearly is a Mood Adjunct, indicating speakers certainty. MoodAdjunct Subj. Finite Pred. Complement Mood Residue Mood AdjunctSubj. Finite Mood Adjunct Pred. Complement Mood Residue Subj.Finite Mood Adjunct Pred. Complement Mood Adjunct Residue MoodSubj. Finite Predicator Circumstantial Adjunct Circ. Adjunct MoodResidue Mood Adjunct Subject Finite Complement Mood Residue 32.MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by BertiNurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca SaktiBEKASI Page 32 MOOD TYPES declarative indicative polar Moodinterrogative imperative Wh Mood in English is realised by thepositionin the clause of the Subject and Finite. Note how these twoelements move around, depending on the mood of the examples below.Indicative Mood Indicated mood is realised by ( ) the featuresSubject + Finite. The order of the Subject and Finite realisesDeclarative and Interrogative. Declarative unmarked: Subject +Finite The car had four bicycle wheels marked: Finite + SubjectThen came the production line Subject Finite Complement Pred.Finite Subject Residue Mood 33. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR(GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the LimitedCommunity of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 33 Interrogative Polar(Yes/No Questions): Finite + Subject Did Henry Ford build his firstcar in the backyard? Should I be using unleaded petrol in my car?Wh-Questions: Querying Subject Wh/Subject ^ Finite Who built a carin his backyard? What is that thing? What happened one morning inMay 1896? Querying Residue: Wh+Fin+Subj where C/Wh (Complement isqueried) or A/Wh (Adjunct is queried) What did Henry Ford build?Finite Subject Predicator Complement Circ. Adjunct Mood ResidueFinite Subject Predicator Complement Circ. Adjunct Mood ResidueSubject/Wh Fin. Pred. Complement Circ. Adjunct Mood ResidueSubject/Wh Finite Complement Mood Residue Subject/Wh Finite Pred.Circ. Adjunct Mood Residue Complement/Wh Finite Subject PredicatorMood Residue 34. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 34 What did Ford do in 1896? Where did Fordbuild his first car? Exclamatives: Wh+S+F+P where C/Wh or A/Wh Whatbig eyes you have! How banal these examples are! How you ve grown!Complement/Wh Finite Subject Predicator Circ. Adjunct Mood ResidueAdjunct/Wh Finite Subject Predicator Complement Mood ResidueComplement/Wh Subject Finite Residue Mood Complement/Wh SubjectFinite Residue Mood Adjunct/Wh Subject Finite Predicator MoodResidue 35. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 35 Imperatives In Imperatives the Moodelement may consist of Subject + Finite, Subject only, Finite only,or they may have no Mood element. There will always be aPredicator. Dont you put it there. (Subject + Finite) Lets put itthere. (Subject) Dont put it there. (Finite) Put it there. (NoSubject or Finite) Commands are variable in their realisation: Turnit down! (Imperative) Will you turn it down please? (PolarImperative) You really ought to turn it down. (Declarative) Whydont you turn it down? (Wh-Interrogative) Offers also dont have atypical grammatical realisation. Have a chocolate! (Imperative)Like a coffee? (Polar Interrogative) Ill make some toast.(Declarative) Ill turn it up, shall I? (Declarative+tag) As we cansee, there is no one-to-one correspondence between semantic andgrammatical categories. Despite this, we rarely have any troubledistinguishing between commands and questions: for example, when amother carrying a load of groceries into the house says to her sonCan you move your gym boots? The context provides an interpretativeframe and only rarely do misunderstand the speech function of anutterance. This is one reason why we need a theory of language inwhich context is a central notion. As Halliday suggests: There israrely any misunderstanding, since the listener operates on thebasic principle of all linguistic interaction the principle thatwhat the speaker says makes sense in the context in which he issaying it. (Halliday 1994:95) 36. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONALGRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for theLimited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 36 Exercise 2.4Check your understanding of MOOD by analysing the following text,which is divided into clauses for you. Key: S = Subject C =Complement F = Finite A = Circumstantial Adjunct MA = Mood AdjunctM = Mood P = Predicator R = Residue 1. Once a man was walking in apark 2. when he came across a penguin. 3. He took him to apoliceman 4. and ( ) said, 5. I have just found this penguin. 6.What should I do? 7. The policeman replied, 8. Take him to the zoo.9. The next day the policeman saw the same man in the same park 10.and the man was still carrying the penguin with him. 37. MAKINGSENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti NurulKhajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page37 11. The policeman was rather surprised 12. and ( ) walked up tothe man 13. and ( ) asked, 14. Why are you still carrying thatpenguin about? 15. Didnt you take it to the zoo? 16. I certainlydid 17. replied the man, 18. and it was a great idea 19. because hereally enjoyed it 20. so today I m taking him to the movies! 38.MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by BertiNurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca SaktiBEKASI Page 38 CHAPTER 3 TRANSITIVITY 39. MAKING SENSE OFFUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati,for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 39INTRODUCTION In this chapter we shall talk about the clause asrepresentation. Through the system of TRANSITIVITY, we shall beexploring the clause in its who=does=what=to=whom,who/what=is=what/who, when, where, why, or how function! There are,in fact, three semantic categories which explain in a general wayhow phenomena of the real world are represented as a linguisticstructures. These are: Circumstances Processes ParticipantsCIRCUMSTANCES Circumstances answer such questions as when, where,why, how, how many and as what. They realise meanings about: Time(temporal): tells when and is probed by when? how often? how long?e.g. He goes to church every Sunday. Place (spatial) tells whereand is probed by where? how far? e.g. He goes to church everySunday. Manner: tells how Means: tells by what means and is probedby what with? e.g. He goes by taxi. Quality: tells how and isprobed by how? e.g. He loved her madly, deeply, truly! Comparison:tells like what and is probed by what like? e.g. He was jumpingaround like a monkey on a roof. 40. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONALGRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for theLimited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 40 Cause: tellswhy Reason: tells what causes the Process and is probed by why? orhow? e.g. The sheep died of thirst. Purpose: tells the purpose andis probed by what for? e.g. He went to the shop for cigarettes.Behalf: tells for whose sake and is probed by for whom? e.g. Hewent to the shop for his mother. Accompaniment: tells with(out) whoor what and is probed by who or what else? e.g. I left work withoutmy briefcase. Matter: tells about what or with reference to whatand is probed by what about? e.g. This book is talking aboutfunctional grammar. Role: tells what as and is probed by as what?e.g. He lived a quiet life as a bee keeper. These are illustratedin the following made-up text: No more will be said aboutCircumstances here; however, you are encouraged to note theanalysed examples throughout the remainder of this chapter. LastSaturday night (Circ:time) the local council held a fancy dressball for charity (Circ:cause) in the Town Hall (Circ:place). TheLord Mayor, who came with his current lady (Circ:accompaniment),was dressed as Old King Cole (Circ:role). He ponced around regally(Circ:manner), and then made a politically correct speech about thehomeless (Circ:matter). 41. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR(GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the LimitedCommunity of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 41 PROCESSES Processesare central to TRANSITIVITY. Participants and Circumstances areincumbent upon the doings, happenings, feelings and beings. Thissuggests that there are different kinds of goings on,whichnecessarily involve different kinds of Participants in varyingCircumstances. There are indeed seven different Process typesidentified by Halliday: Material doing bodily, physically,materially Behavioural behaving physiologically and psychologicallyMental sensing emotionally, intellectually, sensorily Verbal sayinglingually, signally Relational being equal to, or some attribute ofExistential existing there exists Meteorological weatheringProcesses are realised by verbs. Traditionally verbs have beendefined as doing words. But as the above list indicates, some verbsare not doing words at all, but rather express states of being orhaving. Moreover, there are different orders of doings and beings.For example, to write a funny story, to tell a funny story and tohear a funny story are three different orders of meaning. And tosuggest that Barry Tuckwell is the finest living horn player is todefine or assign a unique identity to Barry Tuckwell. To say thatBarry Tuckwell is a fine horn player is to ascribe a quality to himwhich also applies to some other horn players. The statement placesBarry Tuckwell in a class orgroup composed of fine horn players. Sojust as there are different orders of doing, there are differentorders of being. The Process types listed above chapture thedifferences in orders of doing and being (i.e. of meaning) possiblein English. 42. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 42 Non-Relational Processes:Processes ofDoing Material Processes Material Processes are Processes ofmaterial doing. They express the notion that some entity physicallydoes something which may be done to some other entity. So clauseswith a Material Process obligatorily have a doing (Process) and adoer (Participant). The fuel ignites Participant Process Theyoungster wiggled in his heart Participant Process Circumstance Theentity who or which one does something is the Actor. Thereoptionally is an entity to which the Process is extended ordirected. This entity which may be done is the Goal. The exhaustedbushwalker dropped his pack Participant: Actor Process: MaterialParticipant: Goal The youngster wiggled his loose toothParticipant: Actor Process: Material Participant: Goal The Goal ismost like the traditional direct object, which weve told onlytransitive verbs may take. This is interesting since more than 40%of verbs in the dictionary are listed as being both transitive andintransitive. Have the dictionary writers made a mistake? Yes andno. The reason for the non- congruence is that verbs in and ofthemselves are not transitive or intransitive. Clauses are. 43.MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by BertiNurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca SaktiBEKASI Page 43 There are two varieties of Material Processes:creative and dispositive. In the creative type, the Goal is broughtabout by the Process. Handel wrote the Messiah Actor Material GoalIn the dispositive type, we have doings and happenings. Kerrdismissed Whitlam Actor Material Goal The bushwalker tripped ActorMaterial The gun discharged Actor Material Material Processes takeboth the active voice (as above) and the passive. Whitlam wasdismissed by Kerr Goal Material Actor The gun was discharged GoalMaterial With the some of these, we are more used to meeting theProcess in the middle voice (one participant). The fuel ignitesActor Material The gun discharged Actor Material How do werecognise a Material Process? Use the do probe. What did X do? (toY?) What happened to Y? 44. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR(GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the LimitedCommunity of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 44 Use of these probestells us that in the following nursery rhyme, all the Processes areMaterial: Jack and Jill went up the hill Actor Material Circ:placeto fetch a pail of water Material Goal Jack fell down ActorMaterial Circ:place and broke his crown Material Goal and Jill cametumbling after Actor Material Circ:place There is no furtherParticipant which may be incumbent on Material Processes, calledRange. Mental Processes Mental Processes are ones of sensing:feeling, thinking, perceiving. There are three types: affective orreactive (feeling), cognitive (thinking) and perceptive (perceivingthrough the five senses). These Processes differ from Material onesas much as the letter are physical, moving, overt doings. MentalProcesses are mental, covert kinds of goings- on. And theParticipant involved in Mental Processes is not so much acting oracting upon in a doing sense, as sensing having feelings,perceiving or thinking. 45. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR(GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the LimitedCommunity of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 45 Thus, the Participantroles in Mental Processes are Senser and Phenomenon. The Senser isby definition of a conscious being, for only those who areconscious can feel, think or see. We can of course attribute orimpute cosciousness to non-sensate beings: e.g. That toaster doesntlike me, I swear. The Phenomenon is that which is sensed: felt,thought or seen. That toaster doesnt like me Participant: SenserProcess: Mental Participant: Phenomenon We can have clauses withSenser and Phenomenon: Mark likes new clothes Senser Mental:AffectPhenomenon Senser only: Mark understood Senser Mental:CognitivePhenomenon only: Loneliness hurts Phenomenon Mental:Affect Noticethat several of these are bi-directional: Mark likes nice clothesSenser Mental:Affect Phenomenon Nice clothes please Mark PhenomenonMental:Affect Senser I dont understand this stuff SenserMental:Cognition Phenomenon This stuff baffles me PhenomenonMental:Cognitive Senser 46. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR(GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the LimitedCommunity of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 46 Note that this is notthe same distinctionas active and passive voice. The four examplesimmediately above are all active, but can take the passive, andindeed the pleasetype usually do: Nice clothes please Mark (active)Phenomenon Mental:Affect Senser Mark is pleased by nice clothes(passive) Senser Mental:Affect Phenomenon This stuff baffles me(active) Phenomenon Mental:Cognition Senser I am baffled by thisstuff (passive) Senser Mental:Cognition Phenomenon In the aboveexamples, all of the Phenomena are things, but thePhenomenon mayequally well be a fact. I realise the difficulties SenserMental:Cognition Phenomenon I realise the fact that there aredifficulties Senser Mental:Cognition Phenomenon The fact that theywere cruel incensed Mark Phenomenon Mental:Affect Senser MentalProcesses, like Verbal Processes, have the potential to project.Projection occurs when one clause suggests that something wasthought or said (the projecting clause) and another, separateclause indicates what it was that was thought or said (theprojected clause). The projecting and projected clauses are eachanalysed in their own right. In the pairs below, the first clauseexample does not project while the second does. 47. MAKING SENSE OFFUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati,for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 47 1. Irealise the difficulties Senser Mental:Cognition Phenomenon Irealise Senser Mental:Cognition (that) there are difficultiesExistential Existent 2. I know the man who called on you SenserMental:Cognition Phenomenon I know Senser Mental:Cognition (that)someone called on you Actor Material Goal Behavioural ProcessesBehavioural Processes are Processes of physiological andpsychological behavior, like breathing, dreaming, snoring, smiling,hiccuping, looking, watching, listening, and pondering. There isone obligatory Participant: the Behaver. Like a Senser, the behaveris a conscious being. But the Process is one of doing, not sensing.So we can have: She lives in the fast lane Behaver BehaviouralCircumstance:place 48. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROTWIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Communityof STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 48 He snores loudly BehaverBehavioural Circumstance:Manner We can have the enacted behaviourmentioned: He heaved a great sigh Behaver Behavioural Range Hethrew a tantrum Behaver Behavioural Range Range specifies the rangeor scope of the Process, defining its coordinates or domain. Rangeappears in several guises, so we shall return to it below. But inBehaviour Processes, Range names the behaviour enacted. Sometimesit it difficult to distinguish Behavioural Processes and Range fromMaterial Processes with Goal or Range. Several examples of each areprovided below to illustrate the difference. He did the shopping Hetook a nap He threw a tantrum He drew a ragged breath He drove ahard bargain Behaver Behavioural Range He shopped He took two casesHe threw the spear He drew a picture He drove a Porsche ActorMaterial Goal In the first set, the Processes are physiological orpsychological and the Range element names the actual process. Inthe second set someone or something is actually acting, sometimesupon someone or something else. 49. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONALGRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for theLimited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 49 VerbalProcesses Verbal Processes are processes of saying, or moreaccurately, of symbolically signalling. Very often these arerealised by two distinct clauses: the projecting clause encodes asignal source (Sayer) and a signalling (Verbal Process) and theother (projected clauses) realises what was said. As with MentalProcesses which project, the projected and projecting clauses areeach analysed in their own right. She said I dont like brusselsprouts She explained that she didnt like brussel sprouts The Sayer(signal source) need not to be a conscious being. The sign says NoSmoking The alarmed clock screamed Get up There are three otherParticipants that may be incumbent upon Verbal Processes: Receiver:the one to whom the verbalisation is addressed Target: one acledupon verbally (insulted, complimented, etc) Range/Verbiage: a nameof verbalisation itself John told Jenny a rude joke Sayer VerbalReceiver Verbiage Keating slurred Howard Sayer Verbal Target SayerVerbal Senser Mental:Affect Phenomenon Sayer Verbal SenserMental:Affect Phenomenon Sayer Verbal Sayer Verbal MaterialMaterial 50. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 50 Examples of Verbal Processes are listedbelow. Some are used only for reporting: He denied (that) he hadhad anything to do with it and others for both reporting: He saidthat he had had nothing to do with it and quoting: He said, I hadnothing to do with it. Reporting Quoting (and Reporting) insinuate,imply, remind, say, tell, remark, observe, hypothesize, deny,continue, point out, report, make out, claim announce, shout, cry,ask, pretend, maintain demand, inquire, query, interrupt, replay,explain, protest, warn, insist There is one further Participantrole that needs to be discussed. This is Beneficiary. TheBeneficiary is the one to whom or for whom the Process is said totake place. In Material Processes the Beneficiary is either theRecipient or the Client. Recipient is the one to whom goods aregiven. The Client is the one for whom services are provided. 1. Isold the car to John Actor Material Goal Recipient I sold (to) Johnthe car Actor Material Recipient Goal 2. They threw a farewellparty for Jane Actor Material Goal Client They threw (for) Jane afarewell party Actor Material Client Goal 51. MAKING SENSE OFFUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati,for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 51 Tofind out if a prepositional phrase with to or for is a Beneficiaryor not, see if it could occur naturally without the preposition, asin the second example in each of the above pairs. In VerbalProcesses the Beneficiary is Receiver, a Participant role wevealready met. The Receiver is the one who is being addressed. TheReceiver is also sometimes called the addressee. You promised thedoctor you d quit smoking Range Range is the element that specifiesthe scope or domain of the Process. The Range in Material Processestypically occurs in the middle clauses, those with Actor only, noGoal. She dropped a curtsy Actor Material Range She dropped an eggActor Material Goal Another distinction is that Material Processeswith Goal can take resultative attributes, while Material Processeswith Range cannot. Kelly shot Fuller dead Actor Material GoalResultative Attribute She dropped a curtsy dead Actor MaterialRange Sayer Verbal Receiver Actor Material 52. MAKING SENSE OFFUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati,for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 52 Alsoin Material Processes with Goals, the Goal can be changed into anappropriate pronoun and still make sense in context: Kelly shotFuller dead. Kelly shot him dead. This doesnt work with MaterialProcesses with Range: He dropped a curtsy. He dropped it. The doingtype Processes, their meanings and key Participants are summarisedbelow. Process Type Category Meaning Participants Material doing,happening Actor, Goal Behavioural behaving Behaver, Range Mentalsensing Senser, Phenomenon Verbal saying, signalling Sayer, Target,Receiver 53. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 53 Exercise 3.1 Analyse the following shorttext for TRANSITIVITY. You will need first to identify theProcesses and then assign the appropriate Participant roles. Thenidentify the Circumstantial elements, if present. I was drivingalong the coast road when the car suddenly lurched to one side. Atfirst I thought a tyre had gone but then I saw telegraph polescollapsing like matchsticks. The rocks came tumbling across theroad and I had to abandon the car. When I got back to town, well,as I said, there wasnt much left. (Adkins and McKean 1983:21) I wasdriving along the coast road when the car suddenly lurched to oneside. ******** At first I thought (that) a tyre had gone but then Isaw telegraph poles collapsing like matchsticks. The rocks cametumbling across the road and I had to abandon the car. When I gotback to town, 54. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROTWIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Communityof STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 54 well, as I said there wasntmuch left. Relational Processes: Processes of Being and HavingRelational Processes involve states of being (including having).They can be classified according to whether tey are being used toidentify something (Barry Tuckwell may be the finest living hornplayer) or to assign a quality to something (Barry Tuckwell is afine horn player). Processes which establish an identity are calledIdentifying Processes and Processes which assign a quality arecalled Attributive Processes. Each has its own characteristicParticipant roles. In Attributive these are Carrier and Attribute.Barry Tuckwell is a fine horn player In Identifying Processes theParticipants roles are Token and Value. Barry Tuckwell may be thefinest living horn player Relational Processes can be furthersub-classified according to whether they are: intensive, possessiveor circumstantial. Intensive Paul Keating is arrogant. PossessivePaul Keating has dark hair. Circumstantial Circumstance asAttribute The yolk is in the centre. Circumstance as ProcessAlbumen sorrounds the yolk. The options available to RelationalProcesses can be shown as presented on the next page: 55. MAKINGSENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti NurulKhajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page55 Attributive: Carrier, Attribute Identifying: Token, ValueRelational Processes Intensive Possessive Circumstantial Thisnetwork indicates that all Relational Processes are eitherAttributive or Identifying, and at the same time, are eitherintensive, possessive or circumstantial. This gives a paradigm ofsix possibilities. Cytoplasm is sort of a jelly-like materialCarrier Attributive:intensive Attribute Plant cells have a cellwall Carrier Attributive:possessive Attribute The shell appearstransparent The yolk is inside the albumen CarrierAttributive:circumstantial Attribute The nucleus is the brain ofthe cell Token Identifying:intensive Value The transducer is DrBuicks All cells contain cytoplasm Token Identifying:possessiveValue Tuesday was the deadline Albumen sorrounds the yolk TokenIdentifying:circumstantial Value 56. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONALGRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for theLimited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 56 RelationalProcesses play a key role ineducation in subjects such as science,geography, mathematics and economics. It ti through these Processesthat these subjects create an ordered technical vocabulary, and away of classifying the world. They are fundamental in how theabove-mentioned subjects construct the world. It is sometimesdifficult to tell whether a Relational Process is Identifying orAttributive. Perhaps the easiest way to distinguish between them isthat Identifying Processes are reversible. That is, the clause canbe reversed in order and the semantic relationship still holds. Forexample: Barry Tuckwell may be the finest living horn player TokenIdentifying:intensive Value The finest living horn player may beBarry Tuckwell Value Identifying:intensive Token In each case therole (the finest living horn player) and the occupant (BarryTucwell) are the same. If we take a difficult case such as: A whaleis a mammal Carrier Attributive:intensive Attribute We find that,while it is reversible a mammal is a whale the relationship doesnot hold from the original. That is, while all whales a aremammals, all mammals are not whales, as a mammal is a whalesuggests. The clause a whale is a mammal is assigning classmembership, not identification. The reversibility test worksbecause Identifying Processes have a passive voice; that is, theclause can be made passive. However, is does not change its formwhen it is passive so a further test is to substitute a RelationalProcess which does change. For example: The nucleus is the brain ofthe cell The nucleus comprises the brain of the cell TokenIdentifying:intensive Value 57. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR(GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the LimitedCommunity of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 57 The brain of the cellis comprised of the nucleus Value Identifying:intensive TokenExercise 3.2 Halliday defines Value as a referent, function orstatus, and Token as the sign, name, form, holder, occupant. Ingeneral terms, the Value will be more abstract, general and willprovide the category. Token is more concrete, more specific andprovides the instance. Try identifying the Token and Value in eachof the following clauses. You could use one colour for Token andanother for Value. 1. Six undergraduate students served as subjectsfor the experiment. 2. Increased responsiveness may be reflected infeeding behaviour. 3. His attitude constitutes the greatest barrierto progress. 4. X = 2 5. This outline represents my first attemptat a plan of the course. 6. The kulaks were the one who employedothers. 7. Thats one of the points that Galbraith mode. 8. TheBoard of Directors are the decision makers. 9. The first to arrivewill be Fred. 10.The fuels of the body are carbohydrates, fats andproteins. 58. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 58 Listed here are some of the more commonRelational Processes: Attributive Identifying be become go bebecome equal get turn grow add up to play act as keep stay remaincall mean define look appear seem represent spell express smelltaste feel form give constitute sound end up turn out imply standfor symbolise last weigh concern realise indicate signify cost hasbelong to betoken take up span need require resemble occupy owninclude involve contain comprise provide cause Attributive Old,unused fruit is/becomes/goes/gets/turns/grows mouldly. The hunterskept/stayed/remain very still. The light through the cloudslooked/appeared/seemed like liquid gold. Thatsmells/tastes/feels/sounds lovely. Plants have/need/require cellwalls. Identifying X is/equals/represents/standsfor/signifies/means the horizontal axis. The main partscomprise/constitute/form the human brain. The nucleus is/acts asthe brain of the cell. Virures cause/are involved in most outbreaksof flu. This type of embrochure is called/is known as/is termedEinsetzen. Before you accuse us of contradiction, note that thesame word can function as different Processes, depending on itsmeaning incontext. 59. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROTWIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Communityof STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 59 So for example: She smelled thelovely flowers Senser Mental:Percept Phenomenon The baking breadsmelled delicious Carrier Attributive:circ Attribute She felt badlyabout his defeat Senser Mental:Affect Circ:Manner Circ:Matter Feelthis lovely, soft towel! Mental:Perception Phenomenon He felt crookCarrier Attribute:intens Attribute The new uniforms felt scratchyand hot Carrier Attribute:intens Attribute Existential ProcessesExistential Processes are processes of existence. There s a unicornin the garden Existential Existent Circumstance:Place There has norepresentational function; it is required because of the need for aSubject in English. Existential Processes are expressed by verbs orexisting: be, exist, arise and the Existent can be a Phenomenon ofany kind. There ensued a protracted legal battle ExistentialExistent 60. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 60 If in an Existential clause containing aCircumstantial element the Circumstantial element is Thematic, theword there may be ommited: On the matinee jacket was a blood-stainCircumstance:place Existential Existent There was a blood-stain onthe matinee jacket Existential Existent Circumstance:placeExistential there is not to be confused with Circumstantial there:There s your book (right where you left it) Attrib:Circ.Attributive Carrier There s even a book about great Australiandunnies Existential Existent Circumstance:matter There in Theresyour book tells where the book is. There in Theres even a bookabout great Australian dunnies is telling you that such a bookexists. Meteorological Processes The It has no representationalfunction, but does-provide a Subject. These are analysed asProcess: Meteorological. The text overleaf is analysed for you. Asin main scientific and technical texts, many of the Processes areRelational. Hepatitis B is a viral disease which affects the liver.Carrier Attrib:intens Attributive It s hot It s windy It s fiveoclock Meteorological 61. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROTWIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Communityof STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 61 It is one of the most prevalentSTDs worldwide. Token Id:intens Value Circ:place There are over 300million carriers. Extential Existent Because the virus causes nosymtomps Token Id:circ. Value most people dont know SenserMental:cognition (that) they have the disease. CarrierAttrib:possessive Attribute In its acute form, Hepatitis B causesmany severe symptoms. Circ:place Token Id:circ. Value These includeweakness, fatigue, fever and vomiting. Tiken Id:intens ValueAlthough this form is not usually fatal Carrier Attrib:intensAttribute the victim frequently requires hospitalisation. CarrierAttrib:possessive Attribute (Adapted from an information brochuresponsored by SmithKline Beecham Biologicals) 62. MAKING SENSE OFFUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati,for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 62Exercise 3.3 Analyse the following text for TRANSITIVITY. Most, butnot all of the Processes are Relational or Existentional. Whale aresea-living mammals. Some species of whales are very large indeedand the blue whale > is the largest animal to have lived onearth. > The whale looks rather like a fish. but there areimportant differences in its external structure; its tail consistsof a pair of broad, flat, horizontal paddles (the tail of a fish isvertical) and it has a single nostril on top of its large, broadhead. The skin is smooth and shiny and beneath it lies a layer offat (the blubber). This is up to 30cm in thickness 63. MAKING SENSEOF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti NurulKhajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page63 and serves to conserve heat and body fluids. (Adapted fromAdkins and McKean 1983:26) EXTRA PARTICIPANTS AND CAUSATION In manyProcess types there is the possibility of the Process beinginitiated externally. For instance we often find Material clauseslike: The devil made me do it. Here there is a third Participantcalled the Initiator and the Participant roles in the clause wouldbe analysed as follows: The devil made me do it Initiator ActorMaterial Goal A similar situation can be found in RelationalProcesses:Attributive. Here the additional Participant is calledthe Attributor. So we would analyse the following clause as: Shedrives me crazy Attributor Attributive Carrier Attribute InIdentifying clauses, the additional Participant is called theAssigner (the one who assigns the identity). They call me BruceAssigner Id: Value Token 64. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR(GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the LimitedCommunity of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 64 In Mental Process thaadditional Participant is called the Inducer. For example: She mademe rethink my attitudes Inducer Senser Mental Phenomenon In each ofthe examples in this series, the Process is coded as having anexternal cause; i.e. another Participant is necessary to bring theProcess into being. Summary of Processes and IncumbentParticipants: Process---------------------------Participant--------------------------type er ed causer other Material Actor Goal Initiator Beneficiary,Range Behavioural Behaver Range Mental Senser Phenomenon InducerVerbal Sayer Verbiage Target Identifying Token Value AssignerAttributive Carrier Attribute Attributor Existential Existent 65.MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by BertiNurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca SaktiBEKASI Page 65 CHAPTER 4 CLAUSES AND CLAUSE COMPLEXES 66. MAKINGSENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti NurulKhajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page66 INTRODUCTION Systemic functional grammar talks about clauses andclause complexes rather than sentences. Why the terms clause andclause complex when most people already know the word sentence? Thesentence is a unit of written language; it does not apply to spokenlanguage. People do not speak in sentences. It youve ever tried totranscribe audiotaped or videotaped language material, you willhave come up against this fact very quickly. People do, however,speak in message, which are realised grammatically in clauses andclause complexes. Hence, the latter terms are equally applicable tospoken and written language, and therefore are preffered. Rankscale: Traditional vs Systemic Functional Traditional (written)Systemic Functional (written and spoken) sentence clause phrasegroup word word A clause can be defined as the largest grammaticalunit, and a clause complex is two more clauses logically connected.These points are illustrated in the following example: John invitedthe Wilsons to the party but they didnt come which made John ratherindignant as he had thought he was doing them a favour. The textcomprises one sentence (everything between the initial upper caseletter and the full-stop), but five clauses: John invited theWilsons to the party but they didnt come which make John ratherindignant as he had thought he was doing them a favour. These fiveclauses together comprise a clause complex. 67. MAKING SENSE OFFUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati,for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 67RECOGNISING CLAUSE BOUNDARIES Because MOOD, TRANSITIVITY and THEMERHEME are analysed at clause level, it is essential to know whereclauses begin and end. The following outline attempts to defineclauseness and to classify types of clauses. Minor vs Major ClausesA minor clause has no Predicator; major clause do. The principaltypes of minor clause are as follows: Address (vocative) Rhonda,sweety cakes. Greeting Hi! Good day! Exclamations Oh burger!Streuth! None of the above has a Predicator, and so each one is aminor clause. In the example about John and the Wilsons, on theother hand, each segment has a Predicator (in bold) and so each isa major clause. John invited the Wilsons to the party but theydidnt come which make John rather indignant as he had thought hewas doing them a favour. Major Clauses: Independent vs DependentWhile each clause in the above text is a major clause, some of themare independent and some of them are dependent. Independent clausecan stand alone. Dependent clauses cant stand alone in thatparticular environment. So in the following, although Tony is 68.MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by BertiNurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca SaktiBEKASI Page 68 intellegent is a dependent clause; it cannot standalone. he failed, however, is independent; it can stand alone.Although Tony is intelligent, he failed. However, if we had: Tonyis intelligent. However, he failed. both would be independentclauses. Independent clauses realise speech functions that is, makestatements, ask questions, command and exclaim whereas dependentclauses pick up Mode of the primary clause. So, in the followingexample, the dependent clause who is highly intelligent has no Moodof this own; it picks up the interrogative mood of Why did Tony, ,fail? The whole clause complex is Interrogative. It is not the casethat Why did Tony fail (the independent clause) is interrogativeand who is highly intelligent (the dependent clause) declarative.Exercise 4.1 Identify the independent and dependent clauses below.John invited the Wilsons to the party but they didnt come whichmake John rather indignant as he had thought he was doing them afavour. 69. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 69 Independent Clauses: Non-Elliptical vsElliptical Elliptical clauses have bits ellipsed, that is, leftout. But these bits are recoverable from the accompanying text.Non-Elliptical Elliptical Who is the best man? Michael Jones (isthe best man) Are they having a reception? Yes (they are having areception) Joannes mother began to cry and (she) was handed a hankyIn the elliptical examples above, we know that Michael Jones is thebest man, not the captain of the local cricket team, because is thebest man is recoverable from the accompanying text. Major:Dependent Clauses A major dependent clause must EITHER be initiatedby a Subordinating relator: e.g. since, if, although, because e.g.as he had thought A relator Wh-word: e.g. who, which, when e.g.which made John rather indignant Relative word that e.g. (that) hewas doing them a favour OR the verbal group functioning as thePredicator of the dependent clause must be in one of the followingforms: perceptive (infinitive) to to + verb imperfective(participial) ing verb + ing 70. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR(GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the LimitedCommunity of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 70 Independent DependentYou must flick this switch to get the other connection Its myinvention to keep sandwiches in She stood there cooking meals fromdawn to dusk He avoided detection hiding himself in the thicketMajor: Dependent Clauses: Embedded vs Non-Embedded Embedding is amechanism whereby an element (in ourc case, a clause) comes tofunction within the structure of a group, which itself is aconstituent of a clause. So we get: Non-embedded: Its my owninvention to keep sandwiches in Embedded: I needed something (tokeep sandwiches in) In the first example to keep sandwiches in isnot embedded. Instead, it is a dependent clause, one which adds akind of afterthought. In the second, ((to keep sandwiches in)) isembedded, and therefore, does not function as a dependent clause inits own right, but rather acts more like a word qualifying ormodifying the meaning of something. Non-embedded: The prisoner, whohid in the thicket, escaped Embedded: The prisoner who hid in thethicket escaped, but his accomplice was recaptured. Here, the firstwho hid in the thicket is not embedded; it is a dependent clausewhich adds more information about the event under discussion. Thereare two pieces of information in this clause complex: The prisonerescaped and said prisoner hid in the thicket. In the second clausecomplex who hid in the thicket is embedded. This embedded bitserves to define which prisoner it was who hid in the thicket todistinguish this prisoner from some other. In this example thereare again two pieces of information, but they are as follows: Theprisoner who hid in the thicket escaped, and his accomplice wasraptured. 71. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 71 When analysed, for example, forTRANSITIVITY, the difference between embedded and non-embeddedclauses looks like this: The prisoner, who hid in the thicket,escaped The prisoner escaped Actor Material who hid in the thicketActor Material Circ:place The prisoner who hid in the thicketescaped, but his accomplice was recaptured. The prisoner ((who hidin the thicket)) escaped Actor Material but his accomplice wasrecaptured Goal Material The characteristic functions of anembedded elements are as: Qualifier in a nominal group e.g. Theprisoner ((who hid in the thicket))... I need something ((to keepsandwiches in)) Head of a nominal group (nominalisation) e.g. Thatyou are sorry isnt enough To know Garfield is to love him KnowingGarfield is loving him Qualifier in an adverbial group e.g. Bittingoff more ((than you can chew)) is silly Carrier Attrib:intensAttribute 72. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL)Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIPPanca Sakti BEKASI Page 72 CLAUSE COMPLEXES A clause consideredfrom the viewpoint of TRANSITIFITY, MOOD and THEME RHEME is amultivariate structure: that is, one made up of units of differentrank. A clause complex, on the other hand, is a univariatestructure (one made upof units of the same rank). A clause complexis comprised of two or more clause logically connected, or putanother way, a clause complex is a sequence of processes which arelogically connected. Clauses can be combined through one of twologico-semantic relations: Expansion or Projection. We willconsider Expansion first. Expansion Expansion links Processes byproviding additional information. It involves three types ofrelationship: Elaboration, Extension and Enhancement. ElaborationThis involves four relationships: specifying in greater detail,restatement, exemplification, and comment. The types of logicalrelationship covered under Elaboration are the i.e., e.g. andnamely type. Elaboration is shown through the sign =. For example:This stew is awful = its too salty This stew is awful = itscompletely off Ive played in several orchestras = Ive played in theDarwin Shympony and the Brisbane Sinfonia Barry Tuckwell may be theworlds best living horn player = hes very, very talented In eachcase above, the second clause is a sort of paraphrase orafterthought of the first. You can think of Elaboration as the thatis to say relationship. 73. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR(GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the LimitedCommunity of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 73 Extension Thisextends the meaning of one clause by adding something new. Itinvolves and, but, and or type relationships and is marked by a +sign. For example: I play a French horn + and my sister plays oboeI love French horn + but Im less rapt with saxophones I couldpractise this evening + or I could lazily watch TV In each of thesecases, the second clause adds a new, but more related meaning tothe first. You could think of Extension as the moreover orfurthermore relationship. Enhancement This involves circumstantialrelationships where the circumstantial information is coded as newclause rather than within a clause. This can be temporal,conditional, causal, concessive, spatial or manner. It is markedthrough an x sign. For example: I went to rehearsal x after Ilectured all day (temporal) You dont have time to practise x if youteach both day and night (causative) We didnt have rehearsal onMonday x because it was a public holiday (causal) We had rehearsalon Monday x although it was a public holiday (concessive) 74.MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by BertiNurul Khajati, for the Limited Community of STKIP Panca SaktiBEKASI Page 74 We reheased at Kedron Park High School x where wealways rehearse (spatial) Im developing a more pleasing sound x bychanging my embouchure (manner) Projection Projection links clausesby having one process projected through another either by quotingorreporting. Both meanings (ideas) and wordings (locutions) can beprojected. A projected wording is marked with and a projected ideais marked with . We can also project propositions (information) orproposal (goods and services). Projection occurs through Mental andVerbal Processes. For example: Verbal: The conductor said The nextconcert is in July The conductor said That the next concert is inJuly Mental: I thought the next concert is in July I thought thatthe next concert was to be in July I dont want to play in a brassband The grammatical criterion for distinguishing between types ofMental Processes is whether they can project or not, and if theycan project, what they can project. Mental Processes of perception(see, hear, etc.) do not project. Mental Processes of cognition(think, remember, consider) can 75. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONALGRAMMAR (GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for theLimited Community of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 75 projectpropositions by both quoting and reporting. Mental Processes ofreaction (want, desire) can project proposals. Taxis Expansion andprojecton combine with systems of interdependence, or taxis, tomake up the systems for joining clauses in English. Taxis refers tothe dependency status of the clauses in a clause complex. The termhypotaxis is used to refer to relationships in which one clause isdependent on another. In traditional grammar this is calledsubordination. The term parataxis is used when one clause followson from another. In traditional grammar this is calledcoordination. In hypotaxis we refer to clauses as being eitherdominant or dependent. Status is marked thriugh Greek letters.Alpha marks the dominant clause. Clauses are marked alpha, beta,gamma, and so on.it is important to note that the alpha, ordominant clause, does not necessarily come first in the clausecomplex. In parataxis we refer to clauses as being initiating orcontinuing. Clauses are marked by number: 1, 2, 3, and so on. Wecan summarise the choices involved in the system network as shownon the following page: 76. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR(GEROT WIGNELL) Edited by Berti Nurul Khajati, for the LimitedCommunity of STKIP Panca Sakti BEKASI Page 76 Parataxis (numbers)Taxis Hypotaxis (Greek letters) Elaboration ( = ) ExpansionExtension ( + ) Enhancement ( x ) Logico- semantic RelationLocution ( ) Projection Idea ( ) From this system network, we candraw up the following paradigm: Projection Paratactic Locution 1 Isaid 2 I cant do this assignment Idea 1 I thought 2 I cant do thisassignment Hypotactic Locution I said that I couldnt do thisassignment Idea:proposition I thought that I couldnt do thisassignment I decided to do the assignment Idea:proposal I dont wantto do the assignment 77. MAKING SENSE OF FUNCTIONA

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